The UAE’s Evolving Insolvency Mosaic 

I. Introduction 

The legal framework governing corporate insolvency in the United Arab Emirates operates as a distinct, layered system, comprising the federal Civil Law jurisdiction (the Mainland) and autonomous Common Law financial free zones (the Dubai International Financial Centre, DIFC, and the Abu Dhabi Global Market, ADGM).¹ The repeal of the historically problematic Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2016 by the newly enacted Federal Decree-Law No. 51 of 2023 (“FL 51/2023”), effective May 1, 2024, marks the latest and most significant attempt to align the Mainland with international restructuring standards.³ 

A. Research Thesis: Convergence in Conduct, Divergence in Structure 

This analysis posits that FL 51/2023 successfully achieves functional convergence with international best practices by mitigating the extreme risks associated with the prior law, notably by implementing a near-universal stay for secured creditors⁵ and adopting a proportional, conduct-based liability standard (Article 246)⁶, thereby eliminating the punitive, outcome-based trigger of the 20% deficit rule.² 

However, the Mainland framework remains restricted by a critical structural divergence rooted in its Civil Law lineage: the absence of explicit, codified recognition for the floating charge as a proprietary security interest.⁸ This deficiency means that while the Mainland is now functionally capable of managing unsecured debt restructurings, the DIFC and ADGM remain structurally superior and provide higher legal certainty for cross-border secured financing and predictable liability limitation. These Financial Free Zones are thus the optimal choice for multinational groups prioritizing predictable collateral enforcement and comprehensive director safety. 

B. Analytical Methodology: Lex Specialis and Comparative Institutionalism 

This article employs a comparative institutional approach, assessing the core restructuring mandates, procedural efficiency (timeline and stay) and the limitation of managerial liability (veil piercing and wrongful trading), across the Civil Law (Mainland) and lex specialis Common Law (DIFC/ADGM) jurisdictions. The analysis is framed around the scholarly understanding of the “rescue culture” ⁹ and the required level of legal certainty demanded by global finance, drawing upon established legal commentary and practitioner texts. 

II. Procedural Timelines and the Universal Stay Paradigm 

The effectiveness of a restructuring regime hinges on its ability to impose an immediate, robust stay on creditor action, thereby preserving the enterprise value.¹⁰ FL 51/2023 marks a significant departure from the 2016 law by addressing its primary procedural weakness—the secured creditor carve-out. 

A. The New Timelines: Balancing Discipline and Flexibility 

FL 51/2023 strikes a pragmatic balance between procedural discipline and flexibility: 

1. Filing Obligation: The debtor is required to file for Preventive Settlement (PS) or Restructuring no later than sixty (60) days from cessation of payment. Crucially, the law explicitly removes the severe criminal liability risk previously associated with failing to meet this deadline and stipulates that failure to file does not render the application automatically inadmissible. This shift encourages earlier engagement without the deterrent of punitive consequences for human error.⁹ 

2. Moratoria: For the lighter-touch Preventive Settlement, the initial stay is three months, extendable up to a maximum cumulative period of six months. This fixed cap maintains efficiency. For complex Restructuring, the law removes the statutory time limit on the moratorium, granting the necessary judicial flexibility for complex, protracted negotiations and plan formulation (though the plan must still be submitted within six months, extendable with creditor consent).

B. Functional Convergence: The Universal Stay Enhancement 

The most profound functional reform is the effective imposition of a universal stay. The prior law was severely hampered because secured creditors were often not bound by proceedings and could pursue enforcement outside the court, thereby undermining the rescue effort.⁹ 

FL 51/2023 addresses this by mandating that secured creditors must enforce their rights against secured assets exclusively through the Bankruptcy Court.⁵ By centralizing all collateral enforcement under judicial oversight, the Mainland framework provides the debtor with the necessary breathing room to pursue genuine restructuring, aligning the Mainland’s functional capacity with the automatic, universal stays offered by the DIFC Rehabilitation and ADGM Administration models.¹⁰ 

C. Comparative Analysis: Automaticity versus Prescription

While the Mainland has converged in effect (by binding secured creditors), the Financial Free Zones retain an advantage in automaticity and speed of trigger. The DIFC, for instance, automatically initiates a 120-day moratorium immediately upon the directors filing a Rehabilitation Plan Notification, whereas the Mainland relies on a court decision to initiate the proceedings, introducing potential administrative delay.

III. Critical Aspect 2: Limiting Liability – The Paradigm Shift to Proportional Conduct 

The greatest barrier to the adoption of the prior UAE law was the draconian, outcome-based personal liability imposed on directors (the 20% deficit rule)², a severe deterrent that fundamentally conflicted with the principle of limited liability. FL 51/2023 addresses this by replacing the quantitative trigger with a refined, conduct-based test. 

A. The New Liability Standard: Proportional Misconduct (Article 246) 

FL 51/2023 removes the objective 20% asset deficiency requirement and substitutes it with a proportional liability model under Article 246. Key features include: 

1. Scope of Liability: Liability is expanded beyond formal directors and managers to include “any person responsible for the actual management of the company” (de facto or shadow directors) ³, aligning the Mainland with the scope of the UK’s Misfeasance provisions (IA 1986, S. 212).¹⁴ 

2. Proportionality of Penalty: The Court may order the liable person to pay an amount “proportionate to the error attributed to the person concerned“.³ This is the legal foundation for limiting director liability, as the penalty is capped strictly to the restorative value of the loss caused by the proven misconduct, not the entire corporate deficit. This shift necessitates detailed judicial scrutiny of fiduciary conduct, moving the Mainland jurisprudence closer to the analysis applied in Common Law wrongful trading cases.⁶ 

3. Conduct Test: Liability is triggered by prescribed acts committed during the two-year look-back period preceding the cessation of payment, including making preference payments, disposing of assets at an undervalue, or adopting reckless commercial methods to delay bankruptcy.¹⁶ 

B. Shareholder Liability and the Evasion Principle 

The protection afforded to shareholders via the doctrine of separate legal personality (limited liability) remains a fundamental tenet of the UAE Commercial Companies Law.¹⁷ FL 51/2023 primarily targets management for liability arising from insolvency-related conduct.⁶ 

Piercing the corporate veil—holding shareholders personally liable—remains an exceptional equitable remedy reserved for instances of fraud, abuse of the corporate form, or egregious intermingling of assets (the alter ego or mere instrumentality doctrine). The common law “evasion principle,” where a company is interposed specifically to evade an existing legal obligation, remains the critical, high-threshold test that must be satisfied to impose liability on passive shareholders. The expansion of the “actual management” definition under Article 246 ³ acts as a targeted mechanism against de facto shareholder control, rather than a broad erosion of the limited liability principle. 

C. Limiting Liability: Strategic Defences 

The Mainland framework provides explicit statutory defences necessary to limit director liability, requiring hyper-vigilance in corporate governance: 

1. Documented Dissent: Directors are statutorily exempt from liability if they can establish they formally lodged their reservations or objections in the directors’ meeting minutes (Article 147(3) of the prior law, principles carried forward). This defence is the primary legal shield against claims of wrongful trading or management failure. 

2. Precautionary Measures Defence: Liability is avoided if the director proves they took “all possible precautionary measures” to minimize potential losses. This requires documented proof of due diligence, solvency assessments, and professional advice.

D. Comparative Liability: Proportionality vs. Wrongful Trading 

Both the Mainland and the Financial Free Zones now employ conduct-based liability. However, the DIFC and ADGM, which adhere strictly to the Wrongful Trading standard (based on the UK IA 1986, S. 214) ¹⁹, offer superior legal clarity because the concept is backed by extensive Common Law precedent defining the “zone of insolvency” and the proportionality of the loss.

IV. Comparative Analysis: Structural Divergence and the Floating Charge Barrier 

Despite the convergence in liability standards, the Mainland remains structurally disadvantaged for international finance due to its inability to fully accommodate the proprietary security interests critical to global capital markets. 

A. The Structural Barrier: The Floating Charge Dilemma

The legal mechanism for granting security over a fluctuating pool of assets, the floating charge, is the decisive structural barrier separating the jurisdictions.⁸ 

• DIFC and ADGM: These Common Law systems explicitly recognize, register, and enforce the floating charge (the ADGM regulations are modelled directly on the UK’s Insolvency Act 1986 ⁶). This provides a clear priority waterfall for secured creditors, ranking them ahead of unsecured creditors (subject to preferential debts).¹ This structural clarity is essential for asset-based financing.⁸ 

• Mainland UAE (FL 51/2023): While the law references security over “cash flows generated from the debtor’s property or businesses” ⁴, offering a functional analogue, the explicit recognition and established priority hierarchy of the floating charge, as understood in Common Law (e.g., Singapore Companies Act), remain absent from the codified law.⁸ This forces sophisticated lenders toward asset-specific registration processes, raising the cost of funding and increasing legal uncertainty in restructuring. 

B. DIP Financing and Collateral Priming 

The Common Law flexibility of the Financial Free Zones also facilitates superior DIP financing mechanisms. Both the DIFC and ADGM courts possess the power to sanction new security that may be senior or equal to existing secured debt, provided adequate protection is afforded to the existing secured creditor. This sophisticated “priming” mechanism, integral to successful large-scale international restructurings, is not explicitly detailed or governed with the same depth within the Mainland’s codified framework, despite the Mainland law allowing for new financing with court permission.²² 

V. Conclusion: Jurisdictional Arbitrage in the UAE 

Federal Law No. 51 of 2023 is a monumental legislative achievement, successfully addressing the punitive deterrents of the past and establishing a functionally competitive Civil Law restructuring framework that supports the “rescue culture.” The shift to proportional liability and the imposition of a functional universal stay mitigate the primary risks for unsecured creditors and directors facing ordinary business failure. 

However, the analysis demonstrates that jurisdictional arbitrage remains a necessity for sophisticated international groups. For entities focused on asset-based lending, multi-jurisdictional transactions, and the absolute certainty of managerial liability limitation: 

1. Limitation of Liability: The DIFC and ADGM offer a clearer, more predictable conduct-based standard (Wrongful Trading) backed by the established case law of the Common Law, providing greater assurance against personal exposure than the codified proportional misconduct model of the Mainland. 

2. Procedural Certainty: The explicit recognition of the floating charge in the DIFC and ADGM makes them structurally superior for securing complex debt, thereby minimizing the financial and legal risks associated with collateral enforcement during insolvency. 

The ultimate success of FL 51/2023 hinges on the development of consistent jurisprudence regarding proportional liability. Until that occurs, the DIFC and ADGM offer a demonstrably higher degree of legal certainty and structural capability for international finance and the mitigation of complex directorial liability. 

Legislation Cited 

1. Federal Decree-Law No. 51 of 2023 Promulgating the Financial and Bankruptcy Law. (The Bankruptcy Law)  
2. Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2016 concerning Bankruptcy (Repealed)  
3. DIFC Insolvency Law No. 3 of 2009 (as amended in 2019). 
4. ADGM Insolvency Regulations (2015).  
5. UK Insolvency Act 1986. ¹ 
6. Singapore Companies Act 1967. 
7. Federal Law No. 2 of 2015 concerning Commercial Companies.  

Law firm articles cited 

1. Navigating the UAE’s Layered Insolvency Regime – Cleary Gottlieb, https://content.clearygottlieb.com/corporate/emerging-markets-restructuring-journal-winter-2022/navigating-the-uaes-layered-insolvency-regime/index.html 
2. Warning to directors as UAE court imposes personal liability for corporate debts | Insights, https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/insights/publications/2021/10/warning-to-directors-as-uae-court-imposes-personal-liability-for-corporate-debts 
3. New UAE Bankruptcy Law – Key Features You Need to Know – Akin Gump, https://www.akingump.com/en/insights/alerts/new-uae-bankruptcy-law-key-features-you-need-to-know 
4. United Arab Emirates Legislations, https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/2190 
5. The UAE modernises its bankruptcy and financial restructuring, https://www.taylorwessing.com/en/insights-and-events/insights/2024/02/riu-uae-modernises-its-bankruptcy-and-financial-restructuring-legislation 
6. Recent developments in directors’ liability in the UAE and England, https://www.charlesrussellspeechlys.com/en/insights/expert-insights/dispute-resolution/2024/recent-developments-in-directors-liability-in-the-uae-and-england–wales/ 
7. Trading in the zone of insolvency: English High Court orders directors to pay highest ever penalty – Norton Rose Fulbright, https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/a547d9cb/trading-in-the-zone-of-insolvency 
8. Lending & Secured Finance 2019 – Morgan Lewis, https://www.morganlewis.com/-/media/files/publication/outside-publication/chapter/lsf19_chapter-77-united-arab-emirates_april2019.pdf 
9. The new UAE Bankruptcy Law | Latin America | Global law firm, https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en-419/knowledge/publications/97324a48/the-new-uae-bankruptcy-law 
10. Keeping up with the Joneses In bold cross-border move the DIFC enacts new insolvency law | Knowledge – Norton Rose Fulbright, https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en-419/knowledge/publications/bce15149/keeping-up-with-the-joneses-in-bold-cross-border-move-the-difc-enacts-new-insolvency-law 
11. Comparative Gulf Bankruptcy Guide What You Need to Know about the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain | Insights – Sidley Austin LLP, https://www.sidley.com/en/insights/newsupdates/2025/02/comparative-gulf-bankruptcy-guide-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-uae-saudi-and-bahrain 
12. ADGM consultation – key features of draft companies and insolvency regulations – Cleary Gottlieb, https://www.clearygottlieb.com/-/media/organize-archive/cgsh/files/publication-pdfs/adgm-consultation-key-features-of-draft-companies-and-insolvency-regulations.pdf 
13. piercing the corporate veil | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute, https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/piercing_the_corporate_veil 
14. Piercing the Corporate Veil in the UAE: Suing and Enforcing against LLC Shareholders, Directors and Managers, https://waselandwasel.com/articles/piercing-the-corporate-veil-in-the-uae-suing-and-enforcing-against-llc-shareholders-directors-and-managers/ 
15. The English High Court pierces the corporate veil using the “evasion principle”, https://www.hsfkramer.com/notes/pwtd/2015-10/the-english-high-court-pierces-the-corporate-veil-using-the-evasion-principle 
16. UAE Bankruptcy Law Amendments: Directors’ and Managers’ Personal Liability – BSA LAW, https://www.bsalaw.com/insight/uae-bankruptcy-law-amendments-directors-and-managers-personal-liability/ 
17. Remedies for shareholders in the company law of the UAE and the DIFC, https://www.tamimi.com/law-update-articles/remedies-for-shareholders-in-the-company-law-of-the-uae-and-the-difc/ 
18. Piercing v. lifting the corporate veil: understanding the key differences – Dentons, https://www.dentons.com/en/insights/articles/2025/may/29/piercing-v-lifting-the-corporate-veil-understanding-the-key-differences 
19. Wrongful trading | RSM UK, https://www.rsmuk.com/insights/advisory/wrongful-trading 
20. Client Alert: ADGM Court of Appeal confirms availability of fraudulent and wrongful trading claims under ADGM law against directors for onshore conduct pre-dating continuation into ADGM and prior to enactment of ADGM Insolvency Regulations – Quinn Emanuel, https://www.quinnemanuel.com/the-firm/publications/client-alert-adgm-court-confirms-adgm-law-fraudulent-trading-claims-can-be-pursued-for-onshore-conduct-prior-to-continuation-into-adgm-and-enactment-of-adgm-insolvency-regulations/ 
21. Singapore’s omnibus insolvency legislation | White & Case LLP, https://www.whitecase.com/insight-alert/singapores-omnibus-insolvency-legislation 
22. Federal Decree-Law No. (9) of 2016 concerning Bankruptcy, https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/1475/download 
23. Federal Decree-Law No. (51) of 2023 Promulgating the Financial and Bankruptcy Law, https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/2190/download